Compiling an AST back to source code

Question

I'm currently in the process of building a PHP Parser written in PHP, as no existing parser came up in my previous question. The parser itself works fairly well.

Now obviously a parser by itself does little good (apart from static analysis). I would like to apply transformations to the AST and then compile it back to source code. Applying the transformations isn't much of a problem, a normal Visitor pattern should do.

What my problem currently is, is how to compile the AST back to source. There are basically two possibilities I see:

1. Compile the code using some predefined scheme
2. Keep the formatting of the original code and apply 1. only on Nodes that were changed.

For now I would like to concentrate on 1. as 2. seems pretty hard to accomplish (but if you got tips concerning that, I would like to hear them).

But I'm not really sure which design pattern can be used to compile the code. The easiest way I see to implement this, is to add a ->compile method to all Nodes. The drawback I see here, is that it would be pretty hard to change the formatting of the generated output. One would need to change the Nodes itself in order to do that. Thus I'm looking for a different solution.

I have heard that the Visitor pattern can be used for this, too, but I can't really imagine how this is supposed to work. As I understand the visitor pattern you have some NodeTraverser that iterates recursively over all Nodes and calls a ->visit method of a Visitor. This sounds pretty promising for node manipulation, where the Visitor->visit method could simply change the Node it was passed, but I don't know how it can be used for compilation. An obvious idea would be to iterate the node tree from leaves to root and replace the visited nodes with source code. But this somehow doesn't seem a very clean solution?

Answer 1

The problem of converting an AST back into source code is generally called "prettyprinting". There are two subtle variations: regenerating the text matching the original as much as possible (I call this "fidelity printing"), and (nice) prettyprinting, which generates nicely formatted text. And how you print matters depending on whether coders will be working on the regenerated code (they often want fidelity printing) or your only intention is to compile it (at which point any legal prettyprinting is fine).

To do prettyprinting well requires usually more information than a classic parser collects, aggravated by the fact that most parser generators don't support this extra-information collection. I call parsers that collect enough information to do this well "re-engineering parsers". More details below.

The fundamental way prettyprinting is accomplished is by walking the AST ("Visitor pattern" as you put it), and generating text based on the AST node content. The basic trick is: call children nodes left-to-right (assuming that's the order of the original text) to generate the text they represent, interspersing additional text as appropriate for this AST node type. To prettyprint a block of statements you might have the following psuedocode:

 PrettyPrintBlock:
     Print("{"}; PrintNewline();
     Call PrettyPrint(Node.children[1]); // prints out statements in block
     Print("}"); PrintNewline();
     return;


 PrettyPrintStatements:
     do i=1,number_of_children
         Call PrettyPrint(Node.children[i]); Print(";"); PrintNewline(); // print one statement
     endo
     return;

Note that this spits out text on the fly as you visit the tree.

There's a number of details you need to manage:

• For AST nodes representing literals, you have to regenerate the literal value. This is harder than it looks if you want the answer to be accurate. Printing floating point numbers without losing any precision is a lot harder than it looks (scientists hate it when you damage the value of Pi). For string literals, you have to regenerate the quotes and the string literal content; you have to be careful to regenerate escape sequences for characters that have to be escaped. PHP doubly-quoted string literals may be a bit more difficult, as they are not represented by single tokens in the AST. (Our PHP Front End (a reengineering parser/prettyprinter represents them essentially as an expression that concatenates the string fragments, enabling transformations to be applied inside the string "literal").

• Spacing: some languages require whitespace in critical places. The tokens ABC17 42 better not be printed as ABC1742, but it is ok for the tokens ( ABC17 ) to be printed as (ABC17). One way to solve this problem is to put a space wherever it is legal, but people won't like the result: too much whitespace. Not an issue if you are only compiling the result.

• Newlines: languages that allow arbitrary whitespace can technically be regenerated as a single line of text. People hate this, even if you are going to compile the result; sometimes you have to look at the generated code and this makes it impossible. So you need a way to introduce newlines for AST nodes representing major language elements (statements, blocks, methods, classes, etc.). This isn't usually hard; when visiting a node representing such a construct, print out the construct and append a newline.

• You will discover, if you want users to accept your result, that you will have to preserve some properties of the source text that you wouldn't normally think to store For literals, you may have to regenerate the radix of the literal; coders having entered a number as a hex literal are not happy when you regenerate the decimal equivalent even though it means exactly the same thing. Likewise strings have to have the "original" quotes; most languages allow either " or ' as string quote characters and people want what they used originally. For PHP, which quote you use matters, and determines which characters in the string literal has to be escaped. Some languages allow upper or lower case keywords (or even abbreviations), and upper and lower case variable names meaning the same variable; again the original authors typically want their original casing back. PHP has funny characters in different type of identifiers (e.g., "$") but you'll discover that it isn't always there (see $ variables in literal strings). Often people want their original layout formatting; to do this you have to store at column-number information for concrete tokens, and have prettyprinting rules about when to use that column-number data to position prettyprinted text where in the same column when possible, and what to do if the so-far-prettyprinted line is filled past that column.

• Comments: Most standard parsers (including the one you implemented using the Zend parser, I'm pretty sure) throw comments away completely. Again, people hate this, and will reject a prettyprinted answer in which comments are lost. This is the principal reason that some prettyprinters attempt to regenerate code by using the original text (the other is to copy the original code layout for fidelity printing, if you didn't capture column-number information). IMHO, the right trick is to capture the comments in the AST, so that AST transformations can inspect/generate comments too, but everybody makes his own design choice.

All of this "extra" information is collected by a good reenginering parser. Conventional parsers usually don't collect any of it, which makes printing acceptable ASTs difficult.

A more principled approach distinguishes prettyprinting whose purpose is nice formatting, from fidelity printing whose purpose is to regenerate the text to match the original source to a maximal extent. It should be clear that at the level of the terminals, you pretty much want fidelity printing. Depending on your purpose, you can pretty print with nice formatting, or fidelity printing. A strategy we use is to default to fidelity printing when the AST hasn't been changed, and prettyprinting where it has (because often the change machinery doesn't have any information about column numbers or number radixes, etc.). The transformations stamp the AST nodes that are newly generated as "no fidelity data present".

An organized approach to prettyprinting nicely is to understand that virtually all text-based programming language are rendered nicely in terms of rectangular blocks of text. (Knuth's TeX document generator has this idea, too). If you have some set of text boxes representing pieces of the regenerated code (e.g., primitive boxes generated directly for the terminal tokens), you can then imagine operators for composing those boxes: Horizontal composition (stack one box to the right of another), Vertical (stack boxes on top of each other; this in effect replaces printing newlines), Indent (Horizontal composition with a box of blanks), etc. Then you can construct your prettyprinter by building and composing text boxes:

 PrettyPrintBlock:
     Box1=PrimitiveBox("{"); Box2=PrimitiveBox("}");
     ChildBox=PrettyPrint(Node.children[1]); // gets box for statements in block
     ResultBox=VerticalBox(Box1,Indent(3,ChildBox),Box2);
     return ResultBox;

PrettyPrintStatements:
     ResultBox=EmptyBox();
     do i=1,number_of_children
         ResultBox=VerticalBox(ResultBox,HorizontalBox(PrettyPrint(Node.children[i]); PrimitiveBox(";")
     endo
     return;

The real value in this is any node can compose the text boxes produced by its children in arbitrary order with arbitrary intervening text. You can rearrange huge blocks of text this way (imagine VBox'ing the methods of class in method-name order). No text is spit out as encountered; only when the root is reached, or some AST node where it is known that all the children boxes have been generated correctly.

Our DMS Software Reengineering Toolkit uses this approach to prettyprint all the languages it can parse (including PHP, Java, C#, etc.). Instead of attaching the box computations to AST nodes via visitors, we attach the box computations in a domain-specific text-box notation

• H(...) for Horizontal boxes
• V(....) for vertical boxes
• I(...) for indented boxes)

directly to the grammar rules, allowing us to succinctly express the grammar (parser) and the prettyprinter ("anti-parser") in one place. The prettyprinter box rules are compiled automatically by DMS into a visitor. The prettyprinter machinery has to be smart enough to understand how comments play into this, and that's frankly a bit arcane but you only have to do it once. An DMS example:

block = '{' statements '}' ; -- grammar rule to recognize block of statements
<<PrettyPrinter>>: { V('{',I(statements),'}'); };

You can see a bigger example of how this is done for Wirth's Oberon programming language PrettyPrinter showing how grammar rules and prettyprinting rules are combined. The PHP Front End looks like this but its a lot bigger, obviously.

A more complex way to do prettyprinting is to build a syntax-directed translator (means, walk the tree and build text or other data structures in tree-visted order) to produce text-boxes in a special text-box AST. The text-box AST is then prettyprinted by another tree walk, but the actions for it are basically trivial: print the text boxes. See this technical paper: Pretty-printing for software reengineering

An additional point: you can of course go build all this machinery yourself. But the same reason that you choose to use a parser generator (its a lot of work to make one, and that work doesn't contribute to your goal in an interesting way) is the same reason you want to choose an off-the-shelf prettyprinter generator. There are lots of parser generators around. Not many prettyprinter generators. [DMS is one of the few that has both built in.]